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浅谈“网络侵权”的侵权情形及法律规制/王勇生

作者:法律资料网 时间:2024-07-08 09:47:38  浏览:8927   来源:法律资料网
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互联网的迅速普及,为人与人之间的交流开拓了一个开阔、迅捷的平台,带给人们的生活极大的便利。但与此同时,网民的权益也伴生性地受到来自互联网的侵害。对于这些侵害行为许多现有法律根本未曾涉及,这对法律制度和伦理道德提出了严峻的挑战。
一、网络侵权的侵权情形

互联网,是科技发展的产物,也是信息时代的标志。尽管是一个虚拟的空间,给予了网民自由的交流空间。在反腐机制尚未健全、腐败行为屡禁不止的背景下,甚至起到了监督、反腐的作用。然而,因为公民法律意识淡薄和互联网道德失范,互联网往往充斥着自私的报复、造谣、辱骂和骚扰,严重侵犯了公民的权利。从司法实践来看,网络侵权案件主要包括侵犯人身权和侵犯知识产权两大类,但随着互联网的发展,网络诈骗、网络盗窃、网络黑客敲诈勒索等侵犯财产权的侵权表现形式也在不断出现。

(一)侵犯肖像权的情形

肖像权是自然人所享有的对自己的肖像所体现的人格利益为内容的一种人格权。肖像权作为一种具体的人格权,它直接关系到自然人的人格尊严及其形象的社会评价。我国对于肖像权的保护范围是比较狭窄的,我国《民法通则》和司法解释都把“以营利为目的”作为构成肖像侵权的一个必要条件,这使得对公民肖像权的保护不够彻底。

实际上“网络侵权”事件大多是不以营利为目的的,所以很难被认定为构成肖像侵权。实际上,肖像权作为人格权,评定是否侵权不能以营利为目的。对于作为人格权的肖像权而言,如果未经许可,擅自以侮辱、歪曲、丑化及其他非正当方式使用他人的肖像的,通常可以构成对肖像人格权的侵害。当然,出于新闻报道、舆论监督的需要而未经许可使用肖像的,一般也不宜认定为侵犯肖像权。

(二)侵犯名誉权的情形

名誉权,是指人们依法享有的对自己所获得的客观社会评价、排除他人侵害的权利。它为人们自尊、自爱的安全利益提供法律保障。

网络侵权中,一旦某人或者某件是得到网民持续关注,许多网民采取侮辱、诽谤、披露隐私等方式来评价当事者,名誉侵权更多地表现在论坛中网民的议论和评价过程中,这种评价远远超出了言论自由和舆论监督的合理界限,构成了对当事者的名誉伤害。判断侵犯名誉权中最重要的标准就是是否歪曲或捏造事实,从而导致被当事者的社会评价降低或名誉受损,如果仅是语言有些偏激,并无捏造事实的情节,则不构成名誉侵权。

(三)侵犯隐私权的情形

隐私权一般是指自然人享有的私人生活安宁与私人信息秘密依法受到保护,不被他人非法侵扰、知悉、收集、利用和公开的一种人格权,而且权利主体对他人在何种程度上可以介入自己的私生活,对自己是否向他人公开隐私以及公开的范围和程度等具有决定权。

在网络上,未经当事人的同意,以不正当手段获取、披露他人隐私或者非法侵入他人私人领域的行为,属于侵犯隐私权的行为。尽管我国法律对隐私权的规定还直接,但通过网络侵犯隐私权的情况已经不鲜。除了在网络上将他人在现实生活中的隐私公开构成侵犯隐私权外,未经当事人同意擅自涉足网络虚拟的私人空间,如侵入他人账户、电子邮箱、系统程序等,也可能构成侵犯隐私权。

(四)侵犯知识产权的情形

知识产权,指“权利人对其所创作的智力劳动成果所享有的专有权利”。一般包括著作权、专利权、商标权、商业秘密和反不正当竞争权。

网民使用网络,主要目的就是获取、发布和传播信息,上传、下载、搜索、链接信息。也有一些网民未经许可使用他人的商标标识,导致误认的。该行为可能都构成著作权法、商标法和专利法意义上的侵权,从何产生知识产权保护问题。

不正当竞争也是知识产权侵权常见的,360和腾讯互掐后则更加显现。如利用域名实施的不正当竞争行为,利用网络广告等手段进行虚假宣传,利用网络侵害竞争对手商誉,通过网络侵犯他人商业机密,或者使用网络技术手段实施网络攻击,采取不正当的技术措施影响对方软件的正常下载、安装和运行等都是不正当竞争行为。

二、网络侵权的特点

网络作为一种新技术产物,在其中发生的侵权案件又有着不同于传统侵权案件的显著特点:

1、侵权主体广,侵权客体杂

互联网是一个虚拟世界,任何人都可以匿名或者以任意的称谓参与网络活动。侵权主体既包括发布者、也包括转发、复制者、网络服务提供商,网络维权人通常很难找到实施侵权行为背后的人。

网络侵权主体广泛,客体也多样。网络侵权具有简单易行特点,如公布他人的个人信息和隐私、复制他人作品、公布他人肖像、利用软件侵害他人财产等,不但直接侵犯他人的隐私权,还间接地侵犯名誉权,甚至可能发展到侵害他人的人格尊严、财产权、个人生活安宁等合法权益。

2、取证困难大,责任确定难

网络侵权中,互联网的流动性和交互性,决定了要确定侵权人十分困难,网民往往掩饰真实身份,也不知悉正在和自己交流的人的真实身份。一旦网络上实施侮辱、诽谤等侵权行为,难以及时查明,更谈不上如何让其承担责任。而司法机关一般不介入民事取证的程序,网络维权举步维艰。

网络侵权是司法实践中产生的新型案件,既无类似案件的审判经验可供参考,也无比较法上的资料可供借鉴,我国法律中也没有直接具体的规定,并且言论自由与侵犯权利之间的界限模糊,因而也直接适用法律条文,加上网络匿名加剧了调查取证的困难,这些使得对侵权责任的认定比较困难。

3、侵权危害大,损失挽回难

从范围上讲,网络是全球性的,没有物理上的地域、国家边界,侵权后果理论上可以扩散到网络覆盖的任何地方,这个范围是传统侵权案件无法相比的。从速度上看,网络是以数字信息快速交换和传播为重要特征的,侵权后果也随着信息的交换传播而迅速扩散。侵权后果一旦发生,危害极大,权利人造成的损失挽回成本高昂并且十分困难。
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Provisions for Drug Insert Sheets and Labels

Commissioner of SFDA


Provisions for Drug Insert Sheets and Labels



(SFDA Decree No.24)

The Provisions for Drug Insert Sheets and Labels, adopted at the executive meeting of the State Food and Drug Administration on March 10, 2006, is hereby promulgated and shall go into effect as of June 1, 2006.


Shao Mingli
Commissioner of SFDA

March 15, 2006





Provisions for Drug Insert Sheets and Labels


Chapter I General Provisions

Article 1 The Provisions are enacted with a view to regulating drug insert sheets and labels in accordance with the Drug Administration Law of the People’s Republic of China and the Regulations for Implementation of the Drug Administration Law of the People’s Republic of China.

Article 2 The insert sheets and labels of drugs marketed within the territory of the People’s Republic of China shall meet the requirements of the Provisions.

Article 3 Drug insert sheets and labels shall be reviewed and approved by the State Food and Drug Administration.

A drug shall be labeled on the basis of its insert sheet. The content of the label shall be within the scope of the insert sheet. Any words and marks with implied therapeutic effects, misleading information on usage, or inappropriate promotion of the product shall not be printed.

Article 4 A drug label shall be printed on or affixed to the drug package, and no other written words, audio and/or visual materials or other information are attached to introduce or publicize the product or the enterprise.

An insert sheet shall be attached to the smallest package provided by the drug manufacturer for marketing.

Article 5 The wording in drug insert sheets and labels shall be scientific, standardized and accurate. The insert sheet of a non-prescription drug shall be written intelligibly and convenient for patients to judge, choose and use the drug on their own.

Article 6 In the label or insert sheet, the letters or characters shall be clear and easy to be recognized and the marks shall be clear and distinctive. The label and insert sheet shall have no print faded and shall not be affixed unsteadily. Any addition or modification shall not be made by means of pasting, cutting or altering.

Article 7 Drug insert sheets and labels shall be written in standardized Chinese characters published by the National Language Commission. The versions in other languages shall comply with the Chinese version.

Article 8 With the aim to protect public health and direct the rational use of drugs, drug manufacturers may voluntarily apply to add warnings to drug insert sheets or labels. The State Food and Drug Administration may also request drug manufacturers to add warnings to drug insert sheets or labels.


Chapter II Drug Insert Sheet

Article 9 A drug insert sheet shall include the significant scientific data, conclusions and information concerning drug safety and efficacy in order to direct the safe and rational use of drugs. The specific format, content and writing requirements of drug insert sheet shall be prescribed and issued by the State Food and Drug Administration.

Article 10 Disease names, pharmaceutical terms, drug names, the names and results of clinical testing in drug insert sheets shall be expressed in professional terms published or standardized by the State. The units of measurement shall conform to the national standards.

Article 11 All the active ingredients or medicinal ingredients of traditional Chinese medicines in a prescription shall be listed in the insert sheet. For injections and non-prescription drugs, all excipients shall be listed as well.

The ingredients or excipients included in a prescription, which may cause severe adverse reaction, shall be specified.

Article 12 A drug manufacturer shall trace the safety and efficacy of its marketed drugs. For any modification to the insert sheet, an application shall be submitted timely.

The State Food and Drug Administration may also require a drug manufacturer to make modification to the insert sheet on the basis of the results of adverse drug reaction monitoring and drug re-evaluation.

Article 13 After the modification to the insert sheet is approved, the drug manufacturer shall inform relevant drug distributors, drug users and other departments of the modified content immediately, and use the modified insert sheet and label timely as required.

Article 14 The insert sheet shall provide full information on adverse drug reaction and indicate the adverse reactions in detail. A drug manufacturer, who fails to timely modify the insert sheet on the basis of the safety and efficacy data of the marketed drug or to fully explain the adverse reaction in the insert sheet, shall be liable for all the consequences arising therefrom.

Article 15 The approval date and the modification date shall be distinctively shown in the insert sheet.


Chapter III Drug Labels

Article 16 Drug labels refer to the information printed or pasted on drug packaging, including inner labels and outer labels. Inner labels refer to those that appear on immediate packaging; outer labels are those on the other packaging outside of inner labels.

Article 17 The inner label shall bear such drug information as the adopted name in China, indications or functions, strength, dose and usage, production date, batch number, expiry date and manufacturer. If there is no enough space in the package to include all the information mentioned above, the adopted name in China, strength, batch number and expiry date shall be indicated at least.

Article 18 The outer label of a drug shall indicate such information as the adopted name in China, ingredients, description, indications or functions, strength, dose and usage, adverse reactions, contraindications, precautions, storage, production date, batch number, expiry date, approval number and manufacturer. Where indications or functions, dose and usage, adverse reactions, contraindications and precautions cannot be fully noted, main information plus a “See drug insert sheet for details.” notice shall be indicated.

Article 19 The label on the package for transportation and storage shall bear at least the adopted name in China, strength, storage, production date, batch number, expiry date, approval number and manufacturer. Other information such as packaging quantity, precautions for transportation or other marks may be included when necessary.

Article 20 The label for drug substance shall include the adopted name in China, storage, production date, batch number, expiry date, applied specifications, approval number and manufacturer. Other necessary information such as packaging quantity and precautions for transportation shall also be indicated.

Article 21 Where one drug produced by a manufacturer has the same drug strength and packaging specification, the content, format and color of its labels must be the same. Where one drug produced by a manufacturer has different drug strengths or packaging specifications, its labels shall be clearly distinguished from one another, or its specifications shall be notably marked in the corresponding specification items.

Where a drug produced by a manufacturer is administrated as prescription drug and non-prescription drug respectively, their packaging colors shall be distinctly different.

Article 22 For drugs with special requirements on storage, its requirements shall be marked in the notable place of the label.

Article 23 The expiry date in the drug label shall appear in the order of year, month and day, with year shown in four digits, month and day in two digits. Its specific format shall be “Valid till XXXX year XX month” or “Valid till XXXX year XX month XX day”. It may be presented with numbers and other symbols as “Valid till XXXX.XX.” or “Valid till XXXX/XX/XX”.

For the preventive biological product, the expiry date shall be labeled according to the registration specifications approved by the State Food and Drug Administration. The expiry date of the biological product for therapeutic use shall be counted from the filling date. For other drugs, the expiry date shall be counted from the production date.

Where the expiry date is labeled to the day, it shall be marked as one day earlier than the actual expiry date; where the expiry date is labeled to the month, it shall be marked as one month earlier than the actual expiry month.


Chapter IV Use of Drug Name and Registered Trademark

Article 24 The drug name in insert sheets and labels shall conform to the nomenclature principles on the adopted name in China and trade name of drug announced by the State Food and Drug Administration, and shall be consistent with those appeared in the approval documents of the drug.

Article 25 The adopted name in China shall be conspicuous and prominent, and its typeface, size and color shall be consistent, and meet the following requirements:
(1) For horizontal labels, the adopted name in China shall appear in a prominent position within the area of the upper one-third of the label; for vertical labels, it shall appear in a prominent position within the area of the right one-third of the label;
(2) No such illegible typefaces as cursive characters and seal characters shall be used, and no such format as italics, margining and shading shall be used to modify the typefaces.
(3) The font color of the adopted name in China shall be black or white, in sharp contrast to the light-colored or dark-colored background respectively.
(4) Writing in separate lines shall be avoided unless limited by the packaging size.

Article 26 The trade name of a drug shall not be placed in the same line with the adopted name in China; its typeface and color shall be no more conspicuous than that of the adopted name in China, and its font area per character shall be no bigger than half of that of the adopted name in China.

Article 27 Unregistered trademarks and other drug names unapproved by the State Food and Drug Administration shall not be used in the drug insert sheets and labels.

Where a registered trademark is used in a drug label, it shall be printed in a corner of the label. Where a registered trademark contains characters, the font area per character shall be no bigger than a quarter of that of the adopted name in China.


Chapter V Other Provisions

Article 28 For narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances, medicinal toxic drugs, radioactive pharmaceuticals, drugs for topical use, non-prescription drugs and other drugs having special marks specified by the State, their special marks shall be printed in the drug insert sheets and labels.
Where there are special provisions issued by the State for drug insert sheets and labels, they shall prevail.

Article 29 The labeling provisions for Chinese crude drugs and prepared slices of Chinese crude drugs shall be formulated separately by the State Food and Drug Administration.

Article 30 Where drug insert sheets and labels are not in compliance with the Provisions, a punishment shall be imposed in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Drug Administration Law of the People’s Republic of China.


Chapter VI Supplementary Provisions

Article 31 These Provisions shall come into force as of June 1, 2006. the Provisions for Drug Packaging, Labels and Insert Sheets (Provisional) issued by State Food and Drug Administration on October 15, 2005 shall be annulled therefrom.


十堰市户外广告管理暂行办法

湖北省十堰市人民政府


十  堰  市  人  民  政  府  文  件

十政发[2002]27号


              十堰市人民政府关于印发
          《十堰市户外广告管理暂行办法》的通知

各县市区人民政府,白浪开发区管委会,市政府各部门,各县级事业单位,各大中型企业,驻市各单位:
  《十堰市户外广告管理暂行办法》已经市政府第54次常务会议讨论通过,现印发给你们,请认真执行。

                           二○○二年九月二十六日

              十堰市户外广告管理暂行办法

  第一条 为了优化配置城市空间资源,美化城市环境,进一步加强我市户外广告经营管理,促进广告业的健康发展,保护广告主、广告经营者、广告发布者和消费者的合法权益,根据《中华人民共和国广告法》、中华人民共和国国务院令《城市市容和环境卫生管理条例》、《湖北省户外广告管理实施办法》、《湖北省实施〈中华人民共和国广告法〉办法》、《湖北省城市建设监察条例》等法律法规的规定,结合我市经营城市的实际,特制定本办法。
  第二条 本办法所称户外广告,是指由商品生产经营者或服务者,利用城市(城镇)空间和建(构)筑物,直接或间接介绍商品或服务的下列广告:
  (一)利用公有、自有或他人所有的建(构)筑物、场地、空间等设置的路牌、霓虹灯、电子显示屏、电子翻板装置、灯箱、实物模型、招牌以及张贴广告;
  (二)利用车、船(包括各种水上漂浮物和空中飞行物)等交通工具设置、绘制、张贴的广告;
  (三)以其它形式在户外设置的广告。
  第三条 鼓励法人、其他经济组织和个人依照国家法律、法规及本办法的规定,设计、制作、发布有利于改善经济环境、美化城乡面貌、有利公民身心健康的户外广告。
  第四条 城市(城镇)空间是政府的资源。利用城区空间设置户外广告的所有权属市人民政府;利用县(市)城镇空间设置户外广告的所有权属同级人民政府。
  第五条 政府运用市场手段,配置户外广告资源,建立有偿占用城市(城镇)空间设置户外广告的机制。对已经开始市场化运作的户外广告,要进行清理、备案,在规定期限内继续运作;对没有开始市场化运作的户外广告,采取拍卖经营权的办法,从现在开始市场化运作(经批准的公益性广告除外)。
  第六条 政府把户外广告经营权拍卖给具有广告经营资格的广告经营业主,经营业主必须依法经营。需要设置公益广告的,报经同级人民政府批准后,由相关部门组织落实。
  第七条 县级以上工商行政管理部门主管本行政区域内的户外广告的管理工作,负责户外广告的登记,对户外广告的真实性、合法性等进行审核。城市规划、公安、交通等部门依法根据各自的职责,协助做好户外广告的相关工作。
  第八条 县级以上人民政府应根据城市发展总体规划,组织工商、规划、交通等部门制定户外广告的设置专项规划。专项规划经同级人民政府批准后实施。
  第九条 政府授权的单位根据批准的户外广告专项规划,组织户外广告位经营权的招标拍卖工作。
  第十条 户外广告拍卖的基准价(标的)包括:场地占用费、设置管理费、工商管理费等。
  第十一条 户外广告收入实行财政专户管理,政府、单位、个人按比例获取收益的管理办法。
  城区设置户外广告的收益由市财政部门统一收取,为市财政收入;县(市)城镇设置户外广告的收益由县(市)乡镇财政部门收取,为同级财政收入。在企业、事业单位、个人建筑物上设置的户外广告,其收益分配办法由物价、财政部门按有关规定另行制定。
  第十二条 户外广告内容必须有利公民身心健康,促进商品和服务质量的提高,保护消费者的合法权益,符合社会公德,维护国家的尊严和利益,不得以任何形式欺骗和误导消费者。
  第十三条 户外广告应当符合下列条件:
  (一)内容真实、合法、健康、清晰、明白;
  (二)结构坚固、外形美观、容貌整洁;
  (三)文字及书写规范。
  第十四条 有下列情况之一者,不得设置户外广告:
  (一)影响市政公用设施、园林绿化设施使用的;
  (二)妨碍生产、人民群众生活、损害市容市貌的;
  (三)国家机关、文物保护单位和名胜景区的建筑控制地带;
  (四)利用交通标志和交通安全设施的;
  (五)县级以上人民政府禁止设置户外广告的区域。
  第十五条 申请经营户外广告业务的单位或个人,必须经工商行政管理部门核准,并颁发《广告经营许可证》,取得广告经营资格;未取得广告经营资格的,不得从事广告经营业务,不得参加城区户外广告经营权的竞拍活动。
  第十六条 任何单位和个人发布户外广告,必须经工商行政管理部门登记,领取《户外广告登记证》;属临时性广告活动的,领取《临时性广告经营许可证》,并办理相关广告登记。活动结束后7日内拆除所发布的广告。
  第十七条 办理户外广告登记,应向工商行政管理部门提交下列证件或资料:
  (一)参加竞拍取得户外广告位经营使用权的证明或场地使用权、建(构)筑物所有权或使用权证明(含场租合同);
  (二)城市规划部门的设置审查批准意见;
  (三)《广告经营许可证》和《营业执照》及其有效复印件;
  (四)《广告业务发布合同》;
  (五)证明广告内容真实、合法、有效的文件;
  (六)其他有关证件。
  第十八条 设置户外广告必须按照登记的地点、形式、规格、时间以及工商行政主管部门登记的内容据实发布,并标明户外广告审批登记证号、设置者、使用期限(霓虹灯、实物模型广告除外)。
  第十九条 户外广告设置期限一般不超过三年,电子显示屏(牌)一般不超过六年。在有效期内,任何单位和个人不得擅自拆除、遮盖、损坏。确因建设需要撤除户外广告设施的,应当书面通知发布者拆除,建设单位应当对发布者予以补偿;经书面通知,发布者拒不拆除的,审批部门可指定单位代为拆除,费用由发布者承担。
  第二十条 广告设施的制作、安装、设置,应当符合相应的技术质量和安全规范标准。广告主、广告经营者、广告发布者应当依照拍卖合同及有关规定,适时对户外广告进行维修,确保户外广告整洁、安全、美观。
  第二十一条 禁止在本市城区发布布标、条幅、横幅等商业广告。确因特殊需要发布的,必须报经市政府批准。
  第二十二条 本办法适用于十堰市行政区域内的户外广告经营管理。对违反本办法规定的,应由相关部门依照有关法律、法规进行处罚。
  第二十三条 本办法由十堰市工商行政管理部门负责解释。
  第二十四条 本办法自公布之日后三十日执行。同时,十堰市人民政府办公室于2001年2月23日发布的《十堰市户外广告管理实施办法》(十政办发〔2001〕30号)废止。